Fluoroscopic guidance and contrast enhancement are essential for accuracy when performing epidural injections (43). Published data show that even in experienced hands, epidural injections without fluoroscopic and contrast-enhanced guidance (i.e., “blind injections”) often result in inaccurate placement (Table 68-3) (43). These misplacements include the needle being inadvertently positioned into the subarachnoid, intravascular (Table 68-4), or […]
